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Striped polecat

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"Zorilla" redirects here. Not to be confused with Zorrilla. For the baseball player nicknamed Zorilla, see Ben Zobrist.

Striped polecat
Temporal range: Late Pleistocene - recent, 0.128–0 Ma
↓
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
Genus: Ictonyx
Species:
I. striatus
Binomial name
Ictonyx striatus
(Perry, 1810)
Subspecies[2]

(many)

Striped polecat range
Synonyms[2]
List
  • Bradypus striatus Perry, 1810
  • Mephitis capensis Smith, 1826
  • Mustela zorilla Fischer, 1829
  • Putorius zorilla Smith, 1834
  • Ictonyx capensis Kaup, 1835
  • Mephitis africana Lichtenstein, 1836
  • Rhabdogale mustelina Wagner, 1841
  • Zorilla striata Layard, 1861
  • Ictonyx limpopoensis Roberts, 1917
  • Ictonyx orangiae Roberts, 1924
  • Ictonyx kalaharicus Roberts, 1932

The striped polecat (Ictonyx striatus), also called the African polecat, zoril, zorille, zorilla, African muishond, striped muishond, Cape polecat, and African skunk, is a member of the family Mustelidae that resembles a skunk (of the family Mephitidae).[3]: 56  It lives predominantly in dry and arid climates, such as the savannahs and open country of Central, Southern, and sub-Saharan Africa, excluding the Congo Basin and the more coastal areas of West Africa.[1][4]: 429 

Etymology

[edit]

The generic name Ictonyx combines two Ancient Greek words, iktis (ἴκτις, meaning "marten" or "weasel") and ónux (ὄνυξ, meaning "claw"). The specific name is a Latin word meaning "streaked", in reference to the patterns on the animal's back. Therefore, the scientific name of this animal can be interpreted as "streaked weasel claw" or "streaked marten claw".[2]

Painting of a black weasel-like animal with white stripes, with text underneath labeling it
Illustration made in 1794 of a striped polecat with a caption referring to it as a 'zorilla'

This species is referred to by a wide range of vernacular names, one of the most common being "striped polecat". The English word polecat combines the English word cat with the Middle French word poul or pol (meaning "cock"). This word was originally used for the European polecat, referencing its predation on poultry.[5] Another commonly used name is zorilla, sometimes spelled as zorille, which comes from the Spanish word zorillo (meaning "skunk"), itself a diminutive form of the Spanish zorro (meaning "fox").[6][7] The names "African skunk", "African muishond" and "striped muishond" have also been used, though the former is inaccurate since this animal belongs in a separate family from true skunks.[2] Muishond is an Afrikaans word derived from the Middle Dutch term muushont, meaning "mouse hound", and is also used in reference to various mongoose species.[8][9]

Taxonomy

[edit]
Painting of a black furry animal with white stripes running down its back and white markings on its face
Engraving of a striped polecat by Thomas Lord Busby published in the 1810 paper which first described the species, labeled as Bradypus striatus

The oldest scientific description of a striped polecat was published in 1810 by English naturalist George Perry, who described the animal based on an engraving made by English artist Thomas Lord Busby. The individual depicted was seen a few months earlier in London, where the live animal was displayed in a travelling menagerie and claimed to be from South America. Soon after the engraving was made, the menagerie had moved away from London, so Perry was unable to examine the living animal in detail. Based on the engraving, Perry could determine that the species was unknown to science, but was not entirely sure what type of animal it was. He believed it had some similarities to wombats, koalas, bears and weasels, but ultimately described it as a species of sloth in the genus Bradypus, giving it the scientific name Bradypus striatus and the common name "weasel sloth".[10]

More specimens of striped polecats would be analyzed throughout the 19th Century, with various authors establishing new species names based on them. They have since been found to represent the same species and the taxa erected based on them are thus considered synonymous.[2] British zoologist Andrew Smith wrote a catalog in 1826 of the mammal specimens in the South African Museum. He believed one specimen represented an unknown species of skunk in the genus Mephitis, and gave it the scientific name Mephitis capensis.[11] Later in 1829, German zoologist Johann Baptist Fischer described a species under the name Mustela zorilla based on specimens from Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, recognizing that it belongs in the family Mustelidae.[12] This species was moved to the genus Putorius by Smith in 1834, renaming it as Putorius zorilla.[13] The genus Ictonyx was established by German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1835 to contain a single species, which was given the name Ictonyx capensis, marking the first time the striped polecat was assigned to a newly established genus rather than one which already existed. Kaup described the species based on specimens from the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, which is referenced in the specific name.[14] The name Mephitis africana was erected for the striped polecat by German explorer Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1836, who believed like Smith that it is a species of skunk.[15] However, along with Mustela zorilla, this name was synonymized in 1841 with Rhabdogale mustelina, a taxon established by Johann Andreas Wagner that year.[16]

During the early 1900s, the striped polecat was commonly referred to under the scientific name Zorilla striata, with experts such as Édouard Louis Trouessart and William Lutley Sclater using it in their publications.[17][18] This name was first used in 1861 by Edgar Leopold Layard.[19] However, it was pointed out by American zoologist Arthur H. Howell in 1906 that this name is invalid; the specific name striata originates from an 1800 publication by George Shaw but is based on Viverra putorius and thus refers to the eastern spotted skunk, while the generic name Zorilla is preoccupied as it was already used by Lorenz Oken in 1816.[20][21][22] Howell determined that the proper specific name of the animal should be capensis, as he thought it was the oldest given to it (by Smith in 1826). He also concluded that its proper generic name should be Ictonyx since the animal doesn't belong in any of the other genera it was formerly placed in and requires its own genus, thus assigning it the binomial name Ictonyx capensis.[20] In 1915, American biologist Ned Hollister realized that the "weasel sloth" described by Perry in 1810 is actually a striped polecat and thus likely originated from Africa rather than South America as formerly claimed. With this knowledge, striatus became the oldest valid specific name assigned to the striped polecat, giving it priority over capensis, and the animal's proper binomial name is therefore Ictonyx striatus.[23]

Subspecies

[edit]
Painting of a black animal with white stripes walking in a desert
Illustration of the proposed subspecies Ictonyx striatus erythreae published in 1902

A number of striped polecat subspecies have been proposed, though there is debate between different authors as to how many of these are valid. Some authors have categorized them under three groupings based on geography, namely I. s. striatus in southern Africa, I. s. erythrae in northeast and eastern Africa, and I. s. senegalensis in west Africa.[24] However, others believe that the supposed subspecies cannot be consistently distinguished from each other or that their geographic ranges cannot be determined, such that the species is actually monotypic and all proposed subspecies should be considered invalid.[2][25][26] The following 19 subspecies were recognized in the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005:[27]

Subspecies Trinomial authority Description Type locality
I. s. striatus (Nominate subspecies) Perry, 1810 Largely black, with four white back stripes, a white forehead spot and white patches beneath the ears.[28] Cape Province, South Africa[23]
I. s. albescens Heller, 1913 White patterns on the back very extensive, with the black parts of the nape and shoulders reduced to thin stripes.[29] Summit of Mount Lololokwi, Kenya[29]
I. s. arenarius Roberts, 1924 Smaller and has larger ears than the nominate subspecies, with broader and pure white stripes (instead of buffy white like some other subspecies).[28][30] Lambert's Bay, South Africa
I. s. elgonis Granvik, 1924
I. s. erythreae de Winton, 1898 Smaller than the nominate subspecies, with similar coloration to it, but the black dorsal stripes are narrower over the loins and the white patch under the mouth is more extensive in this subspecies.[31][32] Habr Heshi, Somaliland[31]
I. s. ghansiensis Roberts, 1932 Similar to I. s. arenarius but with more white on the back due to the narrower black stripes, and a wider skull.[28][33] Gemsbok Pan, South Africa[33]
I. s. giganteus Roberts, 1932 Much larger than I. s. kalaharicus, with clearly defined black dorsal stripes (though narrower than in the nominate subspecies), and the hind half of the tail is black.[28][33] Shorobe, Botswana[33]
I. s. intermedius Anderson and de Winton, 1902 Smaller than I. s. senegalensis, white patterns on the frontal and in front of the ears commonly merge together.[32] Lado, near Gondokoro, South Sudan[32]
I. s. kalaharicus Roberts, 1932 The white dorsal stripes are very broad, reducing the black stripes to narrow lines over the shoulder, leaving them clearly visible only behind the shoulders. Hind half of the tail is black.[28][33] Kuke Pan, Central Kalahari, Botswana[33]
I. s. lancasteri Roberts, 1932 Has broad black dorsal stripes, and unlike in other southern African subspecies the white dorsal stripes connect to the white frontal spot.[33] Choma, Zambia[33]
I. s. limpopoensis Roberts, 1917 Has very defined back stripes and very little white on the tail (only at the tip) compared to the nominate subspecies, with a small and almost circular frontal spot.[28][34] Mooivlei, South Africa[34]
I. s. maximus Roberts, 1924 Larger than the other South African subspecies, particularly in the skull and teeth, with creamy white stripes like the nominate subspecies.[28][30] Wakkerstroom, South Africa[30]
I. s. obscuratus de Beaux, 1924 Similar to I. s. shoae in size and coloration, but with more white on the back (due to narrower black stripes) and shorter fur.[35] Luuq, Somalia[35]
I. s. orangiae Roberts, 1924 Smaller than the nominate subspecies, with narrower white stripes and a discontinuous inner stripe broken in the middle of the back and on the rump.[28][30] Angra Pequina, south of Bothaville, South Africa[30]
I. s. ovamboensis Roberts, 1951 Intermediate in size between I. s. kalaharicus and I. s. giganteus, but with smaller upper carnassial and molar teeth. Tail is largely black, and the black dorsal stripes are clearly defined.[28] Oshikango, Namibia[28]
I. s. pretoriae Roberts, 1924 Similar to I. s. orangiae but with larger upper carnassial teeth and scantier fur on the underside.[28][30] Boekenhoutfontein, South Africa[30]
I. s. senegalensis Fischer, 1829 White patterns wider than in the nominate subspecies.[12] Senegal[12]
I. s. shoae Thomas, 1906 Slightly larger than the nominate subspecies, with a tail less white and a larger frontal spot.[36] Addis Ababa, Ethiopia[36]
I. s. shortridgei Roberts, 1932 Very large subspecies, the black dorsal stripes are narrower in the front part of the body, tail is whiter than in the South African subspecies.[28][33] Maschi River at the border of tbe Caprivi Strip, Namibia[33]

Evolution

[edit]

The striped polecat is the type species of the genus Ictonyx, and belongs to the subfamily Ictonychinae (which the genus lends its name to) within the family Mustelidae.[14][37] Members of Ictonychinae can be split into two tribes, namely Ictonychini and Lyncodontini. This species is part of the former tribe, which it shares with the African striped weasel, Saharan striped polecat and marbled polecat. It has been shown via genetic analysis that the closest living relative of the striped polecat is the African striped weasel, with multiple studies recovering the two as sister taxa.[38][39][40] A study published in 2008 proposed that the lineages of these two species diverged between 2.7 and 2.2 million years ago, whereas a later study from 2012 suggested an earlier date between 4.3 and 3.4 million years ago for this divergence.[38][39] The following cladogram shows the position of the striped polecat among its closest living relatives according to Gray et al. (2022):[40]

Ictonychinae

Galictis vittata (Greater grison)

Vormela peregusna (Marbled polecat)

Ictonyx libycus (Saharan striped polecat)

Ictonyx striatus (Striped polecat)

Poecilogale albinucha (African striped weasel)

The Saharan striped polecat is sometimes placed in the genus Ictonyx along with the striped polecat, whereas the African striped weasel is the only species assigned to the genus Poecilogale. Such placements would make Ictonyx a paraphyletic grouping, so some authors suggest placing the Saharan striped polecat in a genus called Poecilictis instead, making Ictonyx a monotypic genus containing only the striped polecat.[39][40]

Fossilized remains of striped polecats have been discovered in several Pleistocene-aged localities in South Africa, such as Die Kelders Cave, Blombos Cave, and a fissure fill in Swartklip.[41][42][43] Among the oldest specimens originate from the Sea Harvest Site in Saldanha Bay, and likely date back to a cooler phase of the Last Interglacial, between 128,000 and 74,000 years ago.[44] An extinct species known from fossils was formerly assigned to the genus Ictonyx and given the name Ictonyx bolti in 1985, as it was believed at the time that the striped polecat is its closest living relative.[45] However, further analysis of its remains has shown that it is more closely related to the African striped weasel, so in 1987 this species was moved to its own separate genus named Propoecilogale.[46]

Physical characteristics

[edit]
Skin of an animal with black fur and white stripes laid on a table with a measuring tape placed near it
Fur skin of a striped polecat clearly displaying the stripes running down its back

The striped polecat is a small mammal, growing about 30–38 cm (12–15 in) in length excluding the tail (which adds an additional 22–30 cm (8.7–11.8 in)), and weighing from 0.7 to 1.4 kg (1.5 to 3.1 lb).[24] This species exhibits sexual dimorphism in size, with males being the larger of the two sexes and weighing about 50% more than the females. The specific coloring varies by location. Generally the striped polecat is primarily black, with a wide white band at the back of the head which splits into four white stripes extending down the animal's back and towards the tail. The underside and limbs are entirely black.[2] Both black and white colouration is present on the tail, with the base generally being black, but the colour proportion is variable between individuals of the species.[47][48] The head is mostly black, with two large white cheek patches, a white spot on the forehead, and white fringes on the ears, though the exact extent and size of these facial patterns is also highly variable.[2][49] Like many other mustelids, the striped polecat posseses glands near its anus which can expel a noxious fluid when it feels threatened, and its distinctive patterns are an example of aposematic colouration, serving as a warning to potential predators.[50]

The fur on the back of a striped polecat is silky and long, growing 50–60 mm (2.0–2.4 in) in length, while the fur on the head is shorter and only 6–7 mm (0.24–0.28 in). The tail fur is particularly long, reaching 70–80 mm (2.8–3.1 in), giving the tail a bushy appearance. Five digits are present on each of the four limbs, with each digit bearing a claw, and the soles of the paws are hairless. The claws of the front limbs are longer and more curved than those of the hind limbs, with the former growing about 18 mm (0.71 in) while the latter tend to only measure 10 mm (0.39 in). All claws and digits touch the ground when the animal is walking, and their impressions can be seen in the footprints.[2][47]

Skull of an animal viewed from the left
Skull of an animal viewed from the front
Skull of an animal viewed from the right
Skull of a striped polecat as seen from multiple perspectives

The skull is heavily built, with a braincase that is wide at the back and becomes narrower towards the front, and a short, blunt snout. The palate is also wide in its hind portion, becoming narrower past where the molar teeth are. The eyes are located near the front of the head, with the distance between the front edges of the eye sockets and the tip of the maxilla being only a quarter the length of the entire skull. There is no sagittal crest in this species, though two low ridges serving as attachments for the temporalis muscles are visible from the supraoccipital crests (at the back of the skull) to the postorbital processes (behind the eye sockets). The auditory bullae (bony structures containing the middle and inner ears) are wide and flat, and the zygomatic arches (arch-like bones in the cheeks) are wider at their bases than at their centers. The dentition has a dental formula of 3.1.3.13.1.3.2, that is, three incisors, one canine and three premolars in each half of either jaw, with each half of the upper jaw having one molar while that of the lower jaw has two, giving a total of 34 teeth. The canines are short and robust, with the lower canines bending backwards at their tips, and the outer incisors of the upper jaw are longer than the inner incisors, being used alongside the canines to subdue prey. The molars have broad grinding surfaces, allowing the animal to crush food, especially insects.[2][47]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Photo of a black animal with white stripes walking on sandy ground under a dark night sky
Wild striped polecat seen in Cape Town, South Africa

Endemic to Africa, the striped polecat is an adaptable animal and very widespread across the continent. It inhabits most of Sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from Mauritania across to southeastern Egypt in the north, and stretching down south to South Africa.[1] However, it is absent from the dense rainforests of West Africa and the Congo Basin, as well as the dry areas of northeast Somalia and Ethiopia.[47] Even so, the species shows a tolerance for many types of habitats, occuring in grasslands, forests, rocky areas, and deserts.[1][51] It can inhabit dry areas if scrub cover is present, having been recorded from the hummocks and sand dunes of the Namib Desert, but can also be found in regions with high rainfall.[47] It appears to have a preference for open environments, possibly because the exposure makes other small carnivores vulnerable to predation (especially from birds of prey), whereas the striped polecat can defend itself with its noxious spray, thus reducing competition.[49] Most often, it is found in habitats with large ungulate populations, because of the lower level of shrubs where these grazers occur.[52] The striped polecat occurs in a wide range of elevations, from sea level up to as high as 4,180 m (13,710 ft) above sea level as evidenced by sightings on Mount Kenya.[1][53] It is not confined to natural environments and is even known to enter areas developed by human activity such as plantations and gardens.[1][25]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]
Monochrome photo of two black animals with white stripes facing each other
Though mostly solitary, striped polecats sometimes occur pairs

The striped polecat is a generally solitary creature, though it may sometimes be seen in pairs, and groups consisting of more than two individuals are often small family groups consisting of a mother and her young. Males and females mostly remain separate and tolerate each other's presence during mating, whereas adult males are hostile towards one another.[2] Multiple family groups can reportedly be kept together in captivity with minimal conflict and even groom each other, suggesting they are not exclusively territorial.[24] The species walks with a gait similar to that of a skunk, with its back slightly arched and tail extending horizontally in line with the body while trotting slowly. Though capable of swimming and climbing trees, it tends to avoid doing either.[2][49] It is nocturnal, hunting mostly at night and retreating to rest during the day. Resting areas include burrows, gaps underneath buildings and rocks, hollow logs, and even tree branches up to 3 m (9.8 ft) above the ground. This animal is a powerful digger, using the claws on its front limbs excavate its own burrows, though it often inhabits burrows made by other animals instead.[2][54] Burrow usage is often temporary, though mothers with young tend to stick to one burrow unless there is disturbance.[49]

Diet

[edit]

Like other mustelids, the striped polecat is a predator. It has 34 sharp teeth which are optimal for shearing flesh and grinding meat, and a broad generalist diet which includes various small animals. It can hunt by both vision and smell, and may dig into soil or dung to reach burrowing prey.[2] Analysis of stomach contents has shown that across its range, insects are the most important component of its diet, followed by murid rodents and then reptiles, though more reptiles than rodents may be eaten in arid regions. Plant material may also be consumed, as evidenced by some seeds (possibly ground nuts) in the stomach of one individual, but this is much more rarely eaten than meat.[55] Most prey species taken are small, though larger animals up to the size of a hare are also eaten.[24][49]

Prey may be captured on the ground or extracted from beneath the surface by digging, but the striped polecat does not attempt to catch prey in the air; if it sees a flying or jumping insect, it will go where the prey lands and capture it there. When searching for subterranean invertebrates, the striped polecat pushes its snout into the soil and audibly sniffs, and uses its forelimbs to excavate its prey after detecting it. Most smaller vertebrate prey (including amphibians, lizards, birds and small rodents) is killed with a bite to the skull, sometimes while also pinning it down with one or both forelimbs (though this is never done for birds). Larger prey such as rats (whose skulls the polecat cannot bite through) tend to require pinning down with forelimbs and multiple bites to the neck, head or chest to dispatch, and the predator may even roll around or somersault while biting onto the neck. When preying on snakes, the striped polecat will bite the snake's back and briefly shake it vigorously before retreating, moving swiftly to avoid the snake's strikes. This is repeated four to five times to paralyze the prey, after which the polecat pins it down with its forelimbs and kills the reptile with a bite near the head.[55]

The striped polecat may carry prey in its mouth or drag larger prey backwards towards its den before eating, and if it has killed more prey than it needs, it may hoard some in its den. It commonly eats while in a crouched position, sometimes using its forelimbs to hold its food while doing so. Prey is usually eaten whole from the head first, though the feathers and legs of birds and the stomachs of rodents are sometimes left uneaten. One red-lipped snake was reportedly eaten tail first, possibly because the polecat could not distinguish which end was the head after the reptile died. Larger animals (including rats and mole snakes) are skinned before they are eaten from the shoulder or flank first. Killing prey is an innate behaviour, as evidenced by how young striped polecats reared in isolation can do so at the same age as those raised by their mothers, and using the same methods as wild adults. However, egg breaking is not innate, and captive individuals often show little interest in unbroken chicken eggs or fail to break the shells, though they will lap up the contents of eggs and recognize them as food after learning to break them by biting or rolling them against hard objects. Although the striped polecat consumes most amphibians it encounters, it notably does not eat bufonid toads, likely as they are poisonous and unpalatable. The striped polecat has a high metabolic rate and a short gut between 3.2 and 4.3 times the length of its body (excluding the tail), such that food passes through quickly and is excreted via defecation about 165 minutes after consumption, and the animal must actively forage throughout the night to meet its energy requirements.[55]

This species does not drink water frequently, instead obtaining most of its required moisture through its food. When it does drink, it laps water up using its tongue. A male kept in a cage during winter for two weeks did not drink at all during this time, and only drank small amounts of water occasionally when the weather was hot. Captive females with nursing young have been observed dipping their necks or entire undersides into water during very hot weather, possibly to both cool themselves and carry water to their young.[55]

Reproduction

[edit]

After conception, the gestation period for a striped polecat is about 4 weeks. During this time, the mother prepares a nest for her offspring. The newborn polecats are completely vulnerable; they are born blind, deaf, and naked.[4]: 424  Around one to five offspring are born per litter in the summer. Up to six can be supported at one time, if food is available, because the mother has six teats.[56] The mother protects her young until they are able to survive on their own.[57]

Defense mechanisms

[edit]

The striped polecat is an aggressive and very territorial animal. It marks its territory with its feces and through an anal spray.[4]: 422  The spray serves as a defense against predators, in a similar manner to skunks. The spray, released by anal stink glands, temporarily blinds their adversaries and irritates the mucous membranes, resulting in an intense burning sensation.[4]: 419  Before spraying the opponent with this noxious fluid, the striped polecat often takes a deimatic (threat) stance with its back arched, rear end facing the opponent, and tail straight up in the air.[57]

Communication

[edit]

Striped polecats have been known to communicate with each other using myriad verbal signals and calls. Growls act as a warning to possible predators, competitors, or other enemies to back off. High-pitched screams have been observed as signifying situations of high aggression or accompanying the spraying of anal emissions. An undulating high- to low-pitched scream has been used to convey surrender or submission to an adversary. This call has been noted to accompany the subsequent release of the loser. Conversely, a quieter undulating call has been interpreted as functioning as a friendly salutation. Mating calls are common forms of communication between the sexes. Young polecats often have a specific set of calls and signals, used in adolescence, either signifying distress or joy depending on if the mother is absent or present.[4]: 431 [58]

References

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